Articles
DOI DOI: 10.62441/actainnovations.v63i.1155

EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF INERTIAL AND KINEMATIC INTERACTION ON SINGLE PILES EMBEDDED IN STIFF CLAY UNDER SEISMIC LOADING

Hind Nadhum Al Salami1, Saad F. A. Al-Wakell2, Ahmed Majeed Ali 1
  1. 1 Department of Civil Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering, University of Technology, Iraq.
  2. 2 Department of Civil Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering, University of Technology, Iraq.

Abstract

This study presents an experimental investigation of seismic inertial and kinematic soil-pile-structure interaction in stiff clay using 1 g shaking-table tests. A geometrically scaled aluminum single pile (n=50) was tested under free-head and fixed-head conditions to evaluate the influence of pile head restraint on seismic bending, curvature, and acceleration of pile cap-structure response. The physical model was constructed inside a laminar shear box filled with homogeneous stiff clay and instrumented using strain gauges and accelerometers. Recorded, spectrum-compatible earthquake ground shaking was applied at varying shaking intensities.The experimental results showed that pile-head fixity strongly governs the distribution and magnitude of bending moments along the pile shafts. Free-head piles exhibited predominantly kinematic behavior with peak bending occurring near the ground surface because of rotational restraint. The inclusion of the SDOF system altered the bending response under strong ground-shaking conditions due to inertial interaction effects.   The research lies in its experimental investigation of coupled inertial and kinematic soil-pile interaction in stiff, homogeneous clay. The study uniquely combines the effects of pile head boundary conditions and equivalent SDOF superstructure to evaluate seismic bending response.

How to Cite

Al Salami, H. N., Al-Wakell, S. F. A., & Majeed Ali , A. (2026). EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF INERTIAL AND KINEMATIC INTERACTION ON SINGLE PILES EMBEDDED IN STIFF CLAY UNDER SEISMIC LOADING. ACTA INNOVATIONS, 63, 884–897. https://doi.org/10.62441/actainnovations.v63i.1155
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS) BibTeX

References

  1. [1] Dobry R, O’Rourke MJ (1983) Discussion on “Seismic response of end-bearing piles” by Flores-Berrones & Whitman. J Geotech Eng Div ASCE 109(5):778–781.
  2. [2] Nikolaou AS, Mylonakis G, Gazetas G, Tazoh T (2001) Kinematic pile bending during earthquakes: analysis and field measurements. Géotechnique 51(5):425–440.
  3. [3] Kavvadas M, Gazetas G (1993) Kinematic seismic response and bending of free-head piles in layered soil. Géotechnique 43(2):207–222.
  4. [4] Gazetas G, Dobry R (1984) Horizontal response of piles in layered soils. J Geotech Eng ASCE 110(1):20–40.
  5. [5] Sica S, Mylonakis G, Simonelli AL (2007) Kinematic bending moments of piles: analysis vs. code provisions. Proc 4th Int Conf Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, Thessaloniki, Greece.
  6. [6] Maheshwari BK, Truman KZ, El Naggar MH, Gould PL (2004) Three-dimensional nonlinear analysis for seismic soil–pile–structure interaction. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 24(4):343–356.
  7. [7] Padron LA, Aznárez JJ, Maeso O (2008) Dynamic analysis of piled foundations in stratified soils by a BEM–FEM model. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 28(5):333–346.
  8. [8] Abdulabbas, Z. H., & Alasadi, L. A. (2021). Calculating Dynamic Strengths of Concrete Subjected to Impact Load. Key Engineering Materials, 895, 12–19. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.895.12
  9. [9] Makris N, Gazetas G (1992) Dynamic pile–soil–pile interaction. Part II: lateral and seismic response. Earthq Eng Struct Dyn 21(2):145–162.
  10. [10] Dente G (2005) Pile Foundations: Guidelines for Seismic Design. Patron Editore, Bologna.
  11. [11] Margason E (1975) Pile bending during earthquakes. ASCE–UC Berkeley Seminar (Unpublished).
  12. [12] Dezi F, Carbonari S, Leoni G (2010) Kinematic bending moments in pile foundations. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 30(2):119–132.
  13. [13] Dou H (1991) Response of pile foundation under simulated earthquake loading. PhD Thesis, University of British Columbia.
  14. [14] Meymand PJ (1998) Shaking table scale model tests of nonlinear soil–pile–superstructure interaction in soft clay. PhD Thesis, University of California, Berkeley.
  15. [15] Pender MJ (1993) Aseismic pile foundation design analysis. Bull NZ Natl Soc Earthq Eng 26(1).
  16. [16] Soltani, A. (2008). A FEM model to investigate the lateral behaviour of cylindrical piles in saturated clay. Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 15(D), 373–384.
  17. [17] Martin, G. R., & Chen, C. Y. (2005). Response of piles due to lateral slope movement. Computers & Structures, 83, 588–598.
  18. [18] Babaei, A. (2011). Numerical investigation of axial bearing capacity of piles embedded in sloping ground. International Journal of Physical Sciences, 6(33), 7589–7603.
  19. [19] Chik, Z. H., Abbas, J. M., Taha, M. R., & Shafique, Q. S. M. (2009). Lateral behavior of single pile in cohesionless soil subjected to both vertical and horizontal loads. European Journal of Scientific Research, 29(2), 194–205.
  20. [20] Al-Dikheeli, M. R., Thaib, H. M., & Alasadi, L. A. (2022). Mechanical properties and freeze-thaw resistance of lightweight aggregate concrete using artificial clay aggregate. Open Engineering, 12(1), 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0019
  21. [21] Muthukkumaran, K., Sundaravadivelu, R., & Gandhi, S. R. (2004). Monitoring lateral deflections of a berthing structure during dredging: A case study. In Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, New York, USA.
  22. [22] Bildik, S., & Tanrıöver, H. (2023). Numerical investigation of the pile–soil interaction problem under dynamic loads. Applied Sciences, 13(21), 11653.
  23. [23] Garala, T. K., Madabhushi, G. S., & Di Laora, R. (2022). Experimental investigation of kinematic pile bending in layered soils using dynamic centrifuge modelling. Géotechnique, 72, 146–161.
  24. [24] Van der Kwaak, B. (2015). Modelling of dynamic pile behaviour during an earthquake using PLAXIS 2D: Embedded beam (row) (Master’s thesis).
  25. [25] Rathod, D., Muthukkumaran, K., & Sitharam, T. G. (2016). Dynamic response of single pile located in soft clay underlain by sand. GEOMATE Journal, 11(26), 2563–2567.
  26. [26] Deendayal, R. (2017). Finite element analysis of a single pile under cyclic loading. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET), 8, 918–924.
  27. [27] Castelli, F., Maugeri, M., & Mylonakis, G. (2008). Numerical analysis of kinematic soil–pile interaction. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1020, pp. 618–625). Reggio Calabria, Italy.
  28. [28] Chore, H. S., Ingle, R. K., & Sawant, V. A. (2012). Parametric study of laterally loaded pile groups using simplified FE models. Coupled Systems Mechanics, 1(1), 1–18.
  29. [29] Shi, Z., Liu, L., Huang, M., Shen, K., & Wang, B. (2023). Simulation of cyclic laterally loaded piles in undrained clays accounting for soil small-strain characteristics. Ocean Engineering, 267, 113268.
  30. [30] Elia, G., & Rouainia, M. (2016). Investigating the cyclic behaviour of clays using a kinematic hardening soil model. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 88, 399–411.
  31. [31] Phanikanth, V. S., Choudhury, D., & Reddy, G. R. (2013). Behavior of single pile in liquefied deposits during earthquakes. International Journal of Geomechanics, 13(4), 454–462.
  32. [32] Bagheri, M., Jamkhaneh, M. E., & Samali, B. (2018). Effect of seismic soil–pile–structure interaction on mid- and high-rise steel buildings resting on a group of pile foundations. International Journal of Geomechanics, 18(9), 04018103.
  33. [33] Charles, W. W., & Zhang, L. M. (2001). Three-dimensional analysis of performance of laterally loaded sleeved piles in sloping ground. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 127(6), 499–509.
  34. [34] Chore, H. S., Ingle, R. K., & Sawant, V. A. (2012). Parametric study of laterally loaded pile groups using simplified FE models. Coupled Systems Mechanics, 1(1), 1–7.
  35. [35] Mazurenko, L. V., & Shvartsman, D. A. (1967). Calculation of single piles for lateral loads. Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, 2, 35–38.
  36. [36] Bradley, B. A., Cubrinovski, M., Dhakal, R. P., & MacRae, G. A. (2009). Intensity measures for the seismic response of pile foundations. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 29(6), 1046–1058.
  37. [37] Mironov, V. V. (1971). Method of analysis for laterally loaded pile. Foundation Engineering, 3, 15–17.
  38. [38] Reese, L. C., & Wang, S. T. (1986). Method of analysis of piles under lateral loading. In R. C. Chaney & H. Y. Fang (Eds.), Marine Geotechnology and Nearshore/Offshore Structures (ASTM STP 923, pp. 199–211). Philadelphia.
  39. [39] Reese, L. C., & Cox, W. R. (1969). Soil behaviour from analysis of tests of un-instrumented piles under lateral loading. In Performance of Deep Foundations (ASTM STP 444, pp. 160–176).
  40. [40] Duncan, M. J., Evans, L. T. Jr., & Ooi, P. S. K. (1994). Lateral load analysis of single piles and drilled shafts. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 120(5), 1018–1030.
  41. [41] Takewaki, I., & Kishida, A. (2005). Efficient analysis of pile-group effect on seismic stiffness and strength design of buildings. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 25(5), 355–367.
  42. [42] Curras, C. J., Boulanger, R. W., Kutter, B. L., & Wilson, D. W. (2001). Dynamic experiments and analyses of a pile-group-supported structure. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 127(7), 585–596. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2001)127:7
  43. [43] Dezi, F., Carbonari, S., & Leoni, G. (2010). Kinematic bending moments in pile foundations. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 30(3), 119–132.
  44. [44] Cairo, R., & Dente, G. (2007). Kinematic interaction analysis of piles in layered soils. In Proceedings of the 14th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. ISSMGE-ERTC.
  45. [45] Castelli, F., & Maugeri, M. (2009). Simplified approach for the seismic response of a pile foundation. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 135(10), 1440–1451.
  46. [46] Wu, W. B., Wang, K. H., Zhang, Z. Q., & Leo, C. J. (2013). Soil–pile interaction in pile vertical vibration considering the true three-dimensional wave effect of soil. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 37(17), 2860–2878.
  47. [47] Limkatanyu, S., Kuntiyawichai, K., & Spacone, E. (2009). Response of reinforced concrete piles including soil–pile interaction effects. Engineering Structures, 31(9), 1976–1986.
  48. [48] Saitoh, M. (2005). Fixed-head pile bending by kinematic interaction and criteria for its minimization at optimal pile radius. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 131(10), 1243–1251.
  49. [49] Cox, W. R., Dixon, D. A., & Murphy, B. S. (1984). Lateral load tests on 25.4-mm (1-in.) diameter piles in very soft clay in side-by-side and in-line groups. In J. A. Langer, E. T. Mosley, & C. D. Thompson (Eds.), Laterally Loaded Deep Foundations: Analysis and Performance (ASTM STP 835).
  50. [50] Gandhi, S. R., & Selvam, S. (1994). Model tests on pile group under lateral loads. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Problems of Pile Foundation Engineering (Vol. 1).
  51. [51] Gandhi, S. R., & Selvam, S. (1997). Group effect on driven piles under lateral load. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 123(8), 702–
  52. [52] Patra, N. R., & Pise, P. J. (2001). Ultimate lateral resistance of pile groups in sand. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 127(6), 481–487.
  53. [53] Rao, N. S., Ramakrishna, V. G. S. T., & Raju, G. B. (1996). Behaviour of pile-supported dolphins in marine clay under lateral loading. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 122(8), 607–611.
  54. [54] Salini, U., & Girish, M. S. (2009). Lateral capacity of model piles on cohesionless soil. Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 14(P), 1–9.
  55. [55] Hussain, Q., Al-Neami, M., & Rahil, F. (2025). Experimental assessment of battered pile configurations under seismic loading: Focus on negative inclinations. Engineering and Technology Journal, 43(11), 930–938.
  56. [56] Sivapriya, S. V., & Gandhi, S. R. (2011). Behaviour of single pile in sloping ground under static lateral load. In Proceedings of the Indian Geotechnical Conference (pp. 199–202).
  57. [57] Garala, T. K., Madabhushi, G. S., & Di Laora, R. (2022). Experimental investigation of kinematic pile bending in layered soils using dynamic centrifuge modelling. Géotechnique, 72, 146–161.
  58. [58] Al-Bayati, A., Al-Neami, M., & Rahil, F. (2023). Enhancing pullout load performance of under-reamed piles in homogeneous layered clay: A numerical comparative study. Engineering and Technology Journal, 41(11), 1298–1308.
  59. [59] Alsultani, R., Karim, I., & Khassaf, S. (2022). Dynamic response of deepwater pile foundation bridge piers under current-wave and earthquake excitation. Engineering and Technology Journal, 40(11), 1589–1604.
  60. [60] Ashu Nayak. (2025). Nanotechnology-Enhanced Eco-Smart Building Materials for Carbon-Neutral and Climate-Resilient Urban Infrastructure. Journal of Smart Infrastructure and Environmental Sustainability, 2(3), 1-8.
  61. [61] C.Arun Prasath. (2025). Nature-Based Solutions for Sustainable Management of Degraded Aquatic and Wetland Ecosystems. Journal of Aquatic Ecology and Environmental Sustainability, 2(2), 16–22.
  62. [62] Nisha Milind Shrirao. (2026). Geospatial AI-Driven Soil Moisture Forecasting Model for Climate-Resilient Crop Production Planning. Journal of Environmental Sustainability, Climate Resilience, and Agro-Ecosystems, 16–21.
  63. [63] Rajan.C. (2025). A Comprehensive Review of Smart Infrastructure Technologies for Sustainable Urban Development. Journal of Smart Infrastructure and Environmental Sustainability, 2(3), 9-16
  64. [64] Nguyen Tan Danh IT. (2024). Advanced Geotechnical Engineering Techniques. Innovative Reviews in Engineering and Science, 2(1), 22-33.
  65. [65] Felipe Cid, Andrés Rivera. (2024). Evaluating the Environmental Impact of Agroforestry Systems on Biodiversity Conservation and Carbon Sequestration. Journal of Environmental Sustainability, Climate Resilience, and Agro-Ecosystems, 1(1), 30–35.
  66. [66] Kesufekad Metachew, Letahun Nemeon, Dinfe Egash, Kasil Teyene. (2025). Impacts of Climate-Induced Ocean Warming on Blue Carbon Accumulation and Ecological Stability in Coastal Seagrass Meadows. Journal of Aquatic Ecology and Environmental Sustainability, 17–25.